Histopathology

Question: Talk about each segment of histological recoloring with respect to the clinical history. Give detail portrayal of uncommon stains and their application. Answer: Presentation Stainingis a helping framework utilized in microscopyto patch differentiate in the microscopicalsamples.Staining has colossal significance in histology and immunohistochemistry. Histological stains are ordinarily imperative so as to watch cell game plans and intracellular or extracellular constituents at the tiny level. Histopathology is a significant apparatus for diagnosing patients and discovering the specific infection they are enduring with (1). Stains are gained either from common sources or from artificially created. These stains are utilized in histopathology for discovery of carcinomas, contaminations and other tissue variations from the norm. The histopathological recoloring are reliant on recoloring of different cell parts, tissue color, outside bodies and parasitic or bacterial microorganisms (2). Histological recoloring are sorted dependent on biochemical and physical standards. The most generally utilized recoloring techniques are HE recoloring, extraordinary recoloring and Immunohistochemical recoloring (5). The guideline point of this report is to discover the issues in the given example by utilization of different recoloring procedures. Foundation data Haematoxylin and eosin stain(HE stain) is one of the principalstainsinvented forhistological purposes. It is the most widely utilized color inclinical diagnosisand is frequently gives thegold standard (3). This stain is significant in biopsycell perception of a suspectedcancer (4). A mix of haematoxylinandeosin producesblues orviolets, and reds shades. Haematoxylin ties to DNA and RNA and color the cores blue or violet. Eosin fixes to the proteins or amino acids and stains them red or pink (5). Intracellular cell film, cytoplasmic fibers in muscle tissue, and extracellular filaments mostly get recolored by eosin (3). A disadvantage of haematoxylin recoloring is that it is inconsistent with immunofluorescence. Minute depiction of HE slide A HE recolored slide shows up under optical magnifying lens as follows: Blue or purple hued cores Cytoplasm, basophils, erythrocytes and muscles cells all seem red in shading Collagen and mitochondria are recolored pale pink (3) In the give slide the area demonstrated the followings: Central a normal cells inside lower half squamous epithelium These cells have extraneous cores with clear cytoplasm Sub epithelium contain shade loaded macrophages There was no proof of obtrusive threat In the wake of analyzing the clinical history and HE slide, no malignant growth cell explicit patter of buildup of heterochromatin was watched. Material and techniques The four chose stains dependent on minute perception were Perls, Masson-Fontana, PAS, and Masson Trichrome (Halls change). Perls stain Perls stain was picked in light of the fact that the color saw in the sub epithelium layer. PAS recoloring was performed to check if the epithelium color is hemosiderin. This stain is primarily utilized in research facilities to find the event of iron stores in biopsy example (6). Ferriciron stores in the example tissue (existing ordinarily as ferric iron inside the capacity proteinferritin) at that point respond with the resolvable ferrocyanide present in the stain to makes an insoluble bluedye (a complex hydrated ferric ferrocyanide substance)in situ. They are then envisioned under magnifying lens as blue or purple shades inside the cells (7).This recoloring equation is additionally acclaimed as Perls Prussian blue recoloring procedure. To assess the outcomes discovered during HE recoloring Perls recoloring can be performed. It can affirm the past discoveries. Masson-Fontana stain This stain was additionally picked for the present of shades in the sub epithelium. Masson-Fontana stain will show positive outcomes if the shade is melanin and negative outcome for hemosiderin. This recoloring technique is intended for the histopathological examination of melanocytic injuries. It could be basic to recognize the melanin shades since its envisioning is a lot of unclear with haematoxylin-eosin (HE) recoloring (8). The Fontana-Masson (FM) strategy is utilized in histopathology in those kind of injury which allows the recognizable proof of the shade. Fontana-Masson strategy is powerful for the perception and ID of the melanin color. It additionally has the advantage of raising the typical birefringence of collagen filaments and to explicitly distinguish them with the assistance of energized light microscopy (9). Different strategies ought to be utilized and found in equal manners and a relationship of these results must be additionally executed. In this manner, for the e xamination and investigation of pigmented melanocytic gashes, the improvement of techniques that grant a wide-extending valuation of injuries in a histological example would be advantageous. PAS recoloring Occasional Acid Schiff (PAS) recoloring ought to be performed in view of disease identification in connective tissue. The connective tissue shows the nearness of parasitic contamination. This recoloring is a decent decision for featuring storm cellar cells. Flawless storm cellar film will dispose of the odds of intrusive carcinoma. PASstaining framework used to find polysaccharides, for example, glycogen, and mucosubstances, for example, glycolipids, glycoproteins, and mucins in tissues (10). PAS stain can be chosen to help in the determination of various wellbeing circumstances (11) like: Glycogen stockpiling illness Ewing sarcoma Adenocarcinomas Alveolar delicate part sarcoma Paget illness of the bosom Recoloring of macrophagesinWhipple's illness Aspiratory alveolar proteinosis It very well may be used to diagnose1-antitrypsin inadequacy if periportal liver hepatocytes stain is certifiable Recognizable proof of fungalinfection. The cell dividers of growths stain red. This stain just chips away at living parasites Totals of PAS-positive lymphocytes are available in epidermis inMycosis fungoidesand Sezary disorder called Pautrier small scale abscesses It is utilized to recognize glycogen in lung biopsy tests with aspiratory interstitial glycogenosis (PIG) Erythroleukaemia, a leukemia of youthful red blood corpuscle. These cells tint a brilliant fuchsia It tends to be utilized to highpoint too cross-connected lipids incorporations inceroid lipofuscinosis(NCL) The PAS stain is nearly on a par with GMS recoloring in determination for contagious disease. It genuinely uncovers parasitic morphology unrivaled than the silver stain. This stain can shading crumbled organisms that may not be obvious on HE stain (11). Calcific bodies which are once in a while found in caseating granulomas are additionally set apart with PAS recolor and can be mixed up as yeast-like parasites. It is the stain of decision to check the nearness of contagious disease and to exhibit the cores of yeast-like cells. There are a few disadvantages of utilizing just the HE stain for parasites distinguishing proof. It is frequently tricky to isolate unwell recolored organisms from cell components. Growths can be surely unnoticed in HE recolored tests (3). The morphological structures may not be obvious and on occasion can be confounding. In this manner unique stains for contagious disease recognition are basic for histopathological appraisal (2). Most parasites can be promptly shown with the Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS). PAS is additionally indicated as wide range parasitic stains. Schiff's reagent or PAS Kit is held under room temperature. Along these lines, no additional time is important to warm the reagent and the outcome is accomplished all the more quickly (11). Massons trichrome recoloring Masson's trichrome is a three-shading stainingprocedure applied inhistology. It is appropriate for differentiatingcells from contiguous connective tissue (12). Massons trichrome recoloring was never really sub-epithelial collagenisation. The nearness of uniform ordinary fibrosis can be recognized by this recoloring which will dispose of the odds of squamous cell carcinomas. Weigert'shaematoxylin is applied for cores recoloring The Plasma stain containsacid fuchsin,glacial acidic corrosive, Xylidine Ponceau, and refined water Arrangement B containsphosphomolybdic acidin refined water Arrangement C additionally calledfibre stain. It contains Light Green SF yellowish, or alternativelyFast Green FCF. It is utilized to recolor collagen (15) Massons trichrome recoloring is adequately used to investigate heart pathologies (infarct), solid pathologies (strong dystrophy), hepatic pathologies (cirrhosis) or kidney pathologies (glomerular fibrosis). Besides, it very well may be used to recognize and examine tumors on kidney and hepatic biopsies (13). Immunohistochemistry stain Immunohistochemical recoloring is widely utilized in the determination of unpredictable cell development, for example, those start in destructive tumours.AE1/AE3 can feature the squamous epithelium as this is an expansive range cytokerain marker (14). On the off chance that carcinoma is available the cells will take up the cytokeratin stain. If not odds of intrusive danger will be precluded. Other histopathological stains A few different stains are accessible for performing diverse histological tests. Mallory's trichrome stain is viable for connective tissue, Weigert's versatile stain and Orcein stain are utilized for flexible strands, Heidenhain's AZAN trichrome stain for recognizing cells from extracellular segments, Silver stain for distinguishing proof of Reticular filaments, nerve filaments and parasitic contaminations and Wright's stain is reasonable for histological trial of platelets. TheNissl methodandGolgi's methodare generally utilized for identifyingneurons (15). End The above conversation covers each segment of histological recoloring with respect to the clinical history. Nitty gritty portrayal of uncommon stains and their application is referenced. The insightful investigations in the histopathological district are exceptionally essential to perceive the delicate cases for patients and precise test outcomes can guarantee a positive treatment. Along these lines, the ideal and powerful measures with unrivaled nature of result is huge for a definitive di

Free Essays on Warriors Dont Cry

Beals, Melba Pattillo. Warriors Don’t Cry. First Washington Square Press exchange soft cover printing February 1994. Washington Square Press Publication of Pocket Books, a division of Simon& Schuster Inc. New York, NY. Melba Pattillo Beals-A lesser when she entered Central High School, Melba did a great deal of growing up that year. With the Supreme Court upsetting their choice, that day of that choice, on her path home from school she was assaulted and nearly assaulted. She persevered through a great deal of badgering that year. She got her heels stepped on between each class and was scorched by the water when she attempted to shower after rec center class. She had all her garments splashed on by ink and she got her eyes showered with corrosive which made her need to wear glasses. That equivalent year she survived what should be the most joyful time of a young ladies live. She got her first sweetheart and had her first date, yet everything she would ever consider was the manner by which she was going to endure her following day. Albeit in the end she happened to make a companion (Link) that helped her by revealing to her places to evade, he was unable to be found in broad daylight with her. That y ear Melba turned 16 and however that year she had no one! go to her gathering because of the way that they were frightened to approach her home because of all the bomb dangers everyone particularly the Little Rock Nine were accepting. Regular turned into a battle for Melba, she woke-up, got dressed and went to class were she attempted to make herself not seen to keep away from the provocation, at that point she needed to offer meetings to correspondents (which she had established that that was her future occupation), and afterward returned home to an unending ringing telephone from dangers or plain old hang ups. That year she needed to due without a great deal of the high school things, when her companion Minnijean was ousted, she had nobody to converse with, at home or at school. After that awful year Melba spent at Central, she didn't return there for her senior year... Free Essays on Warrior's Don't Cry Free Essays on Warrior's Don't Cry Beals, Melba Pattillo. Warriors Don’t Cry. First Washington Square Press exchange soft cover printing February 1994. Washington Square Press Publication of Pocket Books, a division of Simon& Schuster Inc. New York, NY. Melba Pattillo Beals-A lesser when she entered Central High School, Melba did a great deal of growing up that year. With the Supreme Court upsetting their choice, that day of that choice, on her path home from school she was assaulted and nearly assaulted. She persevered through a great deal of badgering that year. She got her heels stepped on between each class and was seared by the water when she attempted to shower after rec center class. She had all her garments splashed on by ink and she got her eyes showered with corrosive which made her need to wear glasses. That equivalent year she survived what should be the most joyful time of a young ladies live. She got her first beau and had her first date, however everything she would ever consider was the manner by which she was going to endure her following day. Albeit in the end she happened to make a companion (Link) that helped her by revealing to her places to maintain a strategic distance from, he was unable to be found in broad daylight with her. That year Melba turned 16 and however that year she had no one! go to her gathering because of the way that they were frightened to approach her home because of all the bomb dangers everyone particularly the Little Rock Nine were accepting. Regular turned into a battle for Melba, she woke-up, got dressed and went to class were she attempted to make herself not seen to keep away from the provocation, at that point she needed to offer meetings to journalists (which she had confirmed that that was her future employment), and afterward returned home to an interminable ringing telephone from dangers or plain old hang ups. That year she needed to due without a ton of the adolescent things, when her companion Minnijean was removed, she had nobody to converse with, at home or at school. After that horrible year Melba spent at Central, she didn't return there for her senior year...

Discuss the negative impacts of technological advancement to the society. - 550 Words

Discuss the negative impacts of technological advancement to the society. (Essay Sample) Content: Discuss the negative impacts of technological advancement to the society Students Name Course University Introduction Technology has been one of the greatest achievement humans have ever had since electricity. Every day we see new changes happening through advancements in technology. However, not all the changes can be said to benefit the society. Nevertheless, since the positive impacts of technology have proved to be of a greater value than negative ones people end up ignoring the negative side played by technology in the society. The reason as to why people tend to ignore the negative aspects of technology is the fact that everyone uses technology every day and without it then life would be different from how it is now. One of the most alarming changes caused by technology is how most people spend their time online, doing nothing important and at the end of the day, no one questions them (POLITECHNIKA WARSZAWSKA 2010). This is a clear evidence that people have embraced technology and are ready to lose everything just to exploit the technology. Despite the advantages, here are some of the disadvan tages of technology. First, through the advancements in technology, people have lost meaning of everything else and turned their lives entirely to depend on technology. However, many people might not agree to this but it is the bare truth and to prove it right, no one can agree to live without a phone or the internet for a week regardless of their age or social background. People have already coded it in their brain that technology is life. Second, technology has affected many teenagers and kids. The internet being a free open source of information, pictures and videos for everyone, most young children have found it to be the perfect place to go fulfill their urges and desires. Through, this many minors have been seen engaging in immoral sites and activities, which in the end destroys their life, and thinking (HUTCHBY 2001). However, this situation is unavoidable, and nothing can be done apart from educating the kids on such matters before they are sucked in (ACTIVE LEARNING ASSOCIATES 2005). Third, using earphones for so long, one can end up losing their hearing capability after a long time. Eyesight is also another downfall that people can find themselves losing after spending most of their time looking at the computer or the television. People have forgotten the old time nature walks and for that, such misfortunes happen (HAUGEN MUSSER 2007). Lastly, most of the people who spend their time on the internet have a higher chance of not having friends due t...

Essay on Forgiveness In Dickens Great Expectations

Forgiveness In Dickens Great Expectations Miriam A felt completely choleric. She just could not forgive her husbands apologies anymore. Almon B was a drunkard. When he came home intoxicated, he was always extremely apologetic and told her that hed never get drunk again. Miriam now knew that Almon was not really repentant. She could forgive him until she was blue, but unless Almon truly repented, their marriage would not work. Forgiveness is an important aspect in the family as well as in society, which is built on the family. In Charles Dickens peerless novel called Great Expectations, many characters find it easy to pardon others, but some have to learn to forgive. Dickens uses the characters in his novel to†¦show more content†¦He calls them poor miserable fellow creatures...3 In Great Expectations, Joe is definitely the most magnanimous character. Throughout the novel, Pip wants to be a gentleman. It is easy to see, however, that Pip does not understand what a true gentleman is. Pip thinks a gentleman is a man of fine breeding with a good education, wearing fancy clothes, and showing good manners. If anything, Joe (a man of humble breeding with no education, wearing blacksmiths clothes, showing poor manners) is the best example of a gentleman in the whole book! He is a gentleman on the inside - at the heart. He is able to forgive and loves Pip unconditionally. Joes great love for Pip can be compared to our Heavenly Fathers love for us. Both loves are unconditional. No matter how many times we turn away from God, He is there every time to take us back, forgiving us completely. Just as we sometimes turn away from God, Pip turns away from Joe. When Pip meets Estella and the glittering alternative to life at the forge that she and Satis House represent, he cant ever again enjoy the idea of working with Joe at the forge.4 When he acquires his fortune, Pip totally pushes Joe out of his life. 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Essay about The social issue of homelessness in NC

The Social Issue of Homelessness in North Carolina People drive or walk past a homeless person almost every day without thinking twice about the plight of that person or they may even unconsciously turn their heads the other way in disgust. Homelessness simply put, means without a home - therefore homelessness is an equal opportunity state that can happen to anyone. Even though we have seen some economic prosperity over the years, statistics show that the number of homeless remains very high. With this in mind, communities need to come together at the state, city, and individual level to come up with solutions to mitigate the spreading of this problem. The definition of homelessness varies depending on which organization you ask. The†¦show more content†¦It should be noted that there are different types of homelessness. Homelessness as a result of a natural disaster like Katrina is temporary since those individuals are only displaced for a short period of time. Circumstantial homelessness occurs when someone’s circumstance change – like loss of income, illness, or domestic abuse - that causes them to lose or flee from their home. Finally there is long term homelessness that applies to those individuals who have problems with substance abuse, people who choose to remain homeless because they have become accustomed to that lifestyle, and those individuals with mental health issues. Effects of Homelessness (Bodine, n.d). It is long term homelessness that tends to have a more negative impact on communities. As of January 1, 2011 a survey by the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services found that 12,371 people identified as homeless individuals of which over 25 percent fell into the third type of homelessness (NC Department of Health and Human Services) and there are three major categories that drive this negative impact. The first category is healthcare. 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Flashing red lights Essay Example For Students

Flashing red lights Essay Help, help! cried the little girl, my mommy is on the floor and shes not breathing. The 911 dispatcher tried to calm the little girl. She told her that everything is going to be ok and that the paramedics were on their way. As soon as the paramedics arrived they quickly took control of the situation without a moment to spare. In no time little Jessicas mommy was breathing again. Critical thinking is a tool that is used in everyday life. Critical thinking doesnt always happen when youre reading, it happens everyday on the job. A critical thinker is defined as someone who is a self-motivated leader who is inquisitive and eager to learn more by being open-minded. Elements put to use when critical thinking are interpretation, analysis, and evaluation. A critical thinker is someone who evaluates rather than assumes. Critical thinking is a process that requires time, patience, and diligence. One person that I believe displays all of these techniques when saving peoples lives is Adam Hect a n EMT (emergency medical technician). The four characteristics that Adam displays in order to be classified as a critical thinker are knowledge, analysis, evaluation, and application. Knowledge is the first important step when critical thinking. Knowledge is the identification and recall of information. It is the who, what, when, where, and how. Knowledge is important to Adam and his job because knowledge is what he bases his decisions on. When Jessicas mommy was on the ground and not breathing Adam knew to give her CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation). Without Adams knowledge he would have had no idea of how to get Jessicas mom to breathe again. Not only is knowledge an important skill in everyday life but an important skill when critical thinking on the job. Knowledge leads to many other qualities that are needed for critical thinking such as analysis. Analysis is an examination of a complex, its elements and their relations. So in Adams situation of rescuing Jessicas mom, he had to look at the situation. Based on his knowledge he had to form an analysis of the procedure he should use to make her breathe again. Analysis is a crucial part to critical thinking beca use without being able to analyze the situation, the critical thinker can not figure out what the solution to the problem is. If Adam wouldnt have analyzed the situation he wouldve not known what to do and Jessicas mom wouldve died. That is why analysis is such an important step in the critical thinking process, especially in the field of doctors and emergency medical technicians. Another important part of the process is application and evaluation. Application is the actual process that you use after applying your knowledge and analysis to the situation. In Adams case the actual process of the CPR would be considered the application. Anytime he gets a call to an accident scene or to a house, the procedure that he decides to use is considered the application process. Next comes the evaluation. After all of these elements have been completed, the critical thinker needs to sit back and evaluate their actions. When Adam evaluates the situation, he looks at the outcome, what he did to make the outcome (application), and his analysis. Did he make the right decision based on his knowledge or would there have been a better solution? In Adams case, Critical thinking is a quick process that needs immediate action taken. He doesnt have the chance to sit back and closely analyze the situation and choose an option. He has to go with his instinct and use patience at the sam e time. As you can see critical thinking is not a simple process. There are many elements that go into the thinking process and many factors that determine the outcome. In Adams job he uses critical thinking constantly. He has to be able to use his knowledge in order to save peoples lives. When using his knowledge the other elements of critical thinking follow, such as, evaluation, analysis, and application. Adam has to keep an open mind when analyzing the situation, because each and every situation is different and requires a different application process. When he gets a call to go

Lean Burn Engine Technology

Introduction With the rising desire to attain more miles per gallon of fuel, car manufacturers are now focusing their attention on lean burn engine technologies. On its part, the American government demonstrated its support for lean burn engine technology when it ratified the Energy Policy Act of 2005.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Lean Burn Engine Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In essence, this act qualified cars, trucks, and sports utility vehicles that had engines using the lean burn technology for tax rebates amounting to as much as $2000 under the stipulation of that act. This research paper will examine the technology behind lean burn engines, its impact on the environment and its future prospects (Tobias, et al. 2006). The first lean burn technology for automobile engines was introduced in the market nearly four decades ago by Chrysler. The technology comprised of a set of sensors a nd electronics that would generally regulate the movement of the spark plug under a range of driving circumstances. This technology was meant to increase the performance of the engine and utilize the fuel used per mile. Initially, the automotive challenge that the inventors of lean burn technology wanted to overcome was the throttling losses. Naturally, an automobiles car must have enough space to provide the required power for acceleration but still be able to operate below its possible output when driving at high speed and this was hard to achieve using the lean burn technology (Tobias, et al. 2006). At the present, a large percentage of cars utilize a form of technology commonly known as the four-stroke combustion cycle to convert fuel into motion. This kind of technology is also referred to as the Otto cycle, in respect of Nikolaus Otto, who discovered it in 1867. The main problem of this kind of engine technology is that it consumes much fuel and environmentalists consider it h armful to the ozone layer. On its part, the lean burn engine technology utilizes refined ignition systems along with advanced emission technologies. This combination allows cars using this technology to attain excellent mileage performance and causes minimal threat to the environment (Tobias, et al. 2006). Lean Burn Engine Technology Currently, internal combustion engines that use natural gas are commanding more attention as interest grows in manufacturing automobile engines that are both efficient and environmentally friendly. In response to this interest, automobile manufacturers have introduced natural gas automobile engine sets that feature â€Å"lean-burn† technology.Advertising Looking for research paper on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The technology is referred to as lean because unlike the convectional engine technology it uses excess air along with the fuel. The use of this kind of technology ha s brought about two positive effects. First, the excess air used in lean burn technology reduces the temperature of the combustion process and this lowers the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced by nearly half, compared to a conventional gasoline engine. Second, since there is also excess oxygen available, the combustion process is more efficient and more power is produced from the same amount of fuel (Tobias, et al. 2006). The Combustion Process Any air/fuel reaction requires an energy source to initiate combustion. In the conventional petroleum engines, the combustion process is initiated by the spark plug. In lean-burn gas engines, the combustion process is initiated by pre-mixing the air and fuel upstream of the turbocharger before being introduced into the cylinder. This creates a more homogenous mixture in the combustion chamber and reduces the occurrence of â€Å"knocking† or detonation. To prevent either knocking or misfiring, the combustion process must be co ntrolled within a narrow operating window. In lean burn engine technology, the charge air temperatures together with air to fuel ratio are closely monitored. This is done by the microprocessor- based engine controller, which regulates the fuel flow and air/gas mixture and ignition timing (Cutter Information Corp., 1992). Unlike the conventional petroleum engine, the design of the lean-burn engine incorporates a simple open combustion chamber housed in the piston crown. The shape of the piston crown introduces turbulence in the incoming air/fuel mixture that promotes complete combustion by thoroughly exposing it to the advancing flame front. The flame plate of the cylinder head is regular (flat) and the spark plug is centrally located. The air and gas fuel are correctly mixed under the control of the engine management system (Cutter Information Corp., 1992).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Lean Burn Engine Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Improving efficiency of the System Although lean burn engines that use natural gas have been in existence for some time now, there is room for improvement in terms of energy efficiency and emissions reduction. In fact, enhancing the efficiency of lean burn gas engines remains one of the most likely and cost-effective approaches to enhancing vehicle fuel economy over the next three decades. According to automobile experts, the United States has the potential of reducing its transportation fuel usage by as much as 40% through the production of engines that use the lean burn gas technology (Automotive News, 1992). If this is achieved, it will definitely lead to better economic, environmental, and energy security. By using lean burn engine technology in hybrid and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it is possible to attain even greater fuel saving benefits (EIA, 2008). Ideally, one way of increasing the efficiency of the lean burn engine tec hnology is by focusing on complementary technology pathways involving shared partnerships with vehicle and engine manufacturers, suppliers, national laboratories, and learning institutions. Another strategy that can increase the efficiency of automobile engines using the lean burn technology is by inventing new combustion energy than the currently available natural gas usage. However, this should have minimal emissions in order to enable the engines to meet the required emission regulations without having to use the complex and costly equipment that is currently required. The invention of a cheap technology would definitely ensure that more people buy vehicles fitted with lean burn engines since the current costs have been a hindrance to many people (EIA, 2008). Ideally, one way of achieving all these strategies is by having well balanced research and development efforts ranging from basic research to prototype demonstration. This should be informed at every stage by industry collab orators whose role is to help in identifying the critical barriers to the commercialization of this technology.Advertising Looking for research paper on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The existing public laboratories and universities should also increase their efforts in understanding how the combustion process can be enhanced to maximize its performance and keep emissions at minimal (Pollack, 1992). Environmental Impact of Lean Burn Engine Technology Motor vehicles continue to be the dominant source of air pollution despite tremendous advances in engine technology and pollution control. In industrialized countries, even as cleaner vehicles are replacing older ones, and as transportation emissions are beginning to decline, vehicles are still the major source of air pollution. Meanwhile, in the developing world, vehicle numbers are growing exponentially and without strict control standards in place, emissions from transportation sources are becoming an increasingly urgent concern (Tobias, et al. 2006). There have been repeated calls for gasoline vehicles to raise fuel economy, and thus decrease CO2 emissions. Lean-burn engine designs that use natural gas reduce fu el consumption by 15–20%. In order not to trade off higher fuel efficiency for increased pollutant emissions, lean-burn engine designs will require new aftertreatment technology for control of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions. NOx storage traps, the most efficient existing NOx control technology for lean-burn engines, are much more dramatically impacted by fuel sulfur than other form of engine technologies. Because higher sulfur levels reduce the effectiveness of the traps and necessitate increased fuel consumption, ultralow sulfur fuel is the key enabler for increasing the efficiency of vehicles using the lean burn engine technology (Tobias, et al. 2006). The lean-burn engine increases the ratio of air to fuel, thus reducing fuel use. Lean-burn engines provide an automatic benefit for CO and HC control, which are formed in smaller amounts and can be more easily oxidized in the oxygen-rich exhaust. The challenge comes with control of NOx in an oxygen-abundant environment. NOx storage traps face fewer technical challenges in natural gas engines than in diesel engines because combustion temperatures are easier to control. NOx storage traps demonstrate over 90% efficiency in storage and conversion of NOx to N2, but require virtually sulfur-free fuels for efficient use and this has not yet been achieved (Tobias, et al. 2006). Storage traps operate by incorporating basic oxides into the catalyst, which in turn reacts with the oxidized NO2 in the presence of excess O2 to form fairly stable nitrates. NOx can be stored in this way during lean combustion (excess oxygen) conditions. As the storage medium approaches saturation, or whenever acceleration occurs, the engine will burn fuel-rich, generating CO and HC gases. This triggers the release of NO2, which reacts, as in a three way canisters to oxidize CO and HC to CO2 and H2O while simultaneously being reduced to N2 (Tobias, et al. 2006). One of the results of this technology is significantly reduced emissions i n the exhaust. Most of the new lean-burn automobile engines have NOx emissions as low as.85 grams/BHP-hr, and produce low amounts of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM). This allows the engine sets to meet the most stringent air quality regulations without after-treatment devices in the exhaust stream. For even lower emissions, lean-burn automobile engine sets are frequently coupled with integrated after-treatment options such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Oxidation Catalysts, resulting in NOx levels at or below 0.15 grams/BHP-hr. With these after-treatment options, the lean gas automobile engines have been shown to meet the most stringent prime power emissions regulations anywhere in the world (Tobias, et al. 2006). As it has already been noted, the lean burn engine technology will enable huge leaps in fuel efficiency, translating directly into reductions in CO2 emissions in automobiles. If properly utilized, this technology could dramat ically reduce both greenhouse gas and conventional pollutant emissions. Additionally, research continues on how to make zero-emission transportation technologies, such as the hydrogen fuel cell economically viable. Sulfur is a major obstacle for technologies to both reduce and eliminate greenhouse gas emissions. The reduced fuel use in lean burn engine technology means that low sulfur is generated and this is definitely a good thing for the environment (Johnson, 1992). Sulfur levels in fuel have a range of direct and indirect impacts on greenhouse gas emissions. Sulfur prevents the efficient functioning of certain types of catalysts, which in turn translates into higher methane emissions from oxidation catalysts and higher CO2 emissions from more advanced technologies. Sulfur also impedes the viability of emissions control technologies in several arenas. In addition, fuel cells—the most promising long-term solution for eliminating greenhouse gas emissions—will require sulfur-free fuels in order to function. This goal is attainable if the use of lean burn engine technology in automobiles is fully adopted (Johnson, 1992). Fuel flexibility Another advantage of the lean-burn engine technology with full-authority electronic engine controls is the ability to operate on gas with a wide range of quality. A measurement called the Methane Number (MN) is used to determine gas suitability as an engine fuel. Most natural gas has an MN from 70 to 97, and pipeline quality gas typically has an MN of about 75. Resource recovery gas from landfills or sewage treatment facilities is typically of lower quality, but is often suitable for use in lean-burn engines. Most of the lean-burn automobile engines operate on gas with an MN of 50 or greater, providing excellent fuel flexibility. However, gas with a MN below 70 may require the engines output to be derated. Lean-burn gas engine sets are setting a new standard for fuel efficiency, high power output for their size, a nd for low emissions. In regions with supplies of natural gas, these engine sets are providing highly reliable electric power for utility peaking, distributed generation, prime power and for combined heat and power systems (MacKenzie, Roger, Donald, 1992). The Future Prospects of Lean Burn Technology Currently, there is an increased interest in lean-burn engine technologies, i.e. lean-burn natural gas engines, mainly due to their higher fuel efficiency compared to conventional petroleum engines (Greene, 2005). These engines work under excess oxygen and consequently produce oxygen-rich exhaust. However, effectively reducing NOx in oxygen-rich exhaust is a challenging endeavor because the conventional three-way catalyst technology is not able to reduce NOx efficiently under any circumstances. Therefore, new catalytic systems have to be developed. Several approaches have been suggested and among the most promising is the so-called NOx storage reduction (NSR) concept. Because of the th ree-way catalyst, the emission of NOx by natural gas engines has decreased significantly. However, this gain is counteracted by the continuing rise in vehicle numbers and distances traveled, particularly by the increase in the number of diesel engines that do not use the lean burn engine technology. The latest quarterly pricing survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers (Greene, 2005) shows that cars using the lean burn engine technology accounted for 49% of the total European car market at the end of 2005. It is expected that the number of cars using the lean burn engine technology will continue to grow, potentially achieving 55-60% of the total market. There are several reasons for the increased interest in lean burn engines that use natural gas. The lean-burn combustion of natural gas engines results in higher fuel efficiency compared to conventional petroleum engines and consequently significantly lower amounts of the greenhouse gas CO2. In addition, natural gas has enhanced performance r egarding CO and HC. Most governments in Westerns countries have been encouraging the use of lean burn engine technology. Tax regimes make natural gas cheaper than petroleum in order encourage the sales of lean burn technology engines (MacKenzie, Roger, Donald, 1992). The increased interest in lean-burn engine technology has prompted research on the development of a new catalyst that is capable of reducing NOx in excess O2 to meet future legislation. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx using ammonia (NH3) or urea (CO (NH2)2) is a well-known process in industry as well as in stationary lean burn engine applications. In the presence of O2, NH3 tends to react with NOx to form N2. Urea, which is safer in use than NH3, can be used as NH3 source and urea-based systems are already applied for heavy-duty trucks (Sanger, 2001). Higher fuel efficiency and reduced emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 make lean-burn engines attractive compared to conventional petroleum engines. However, c ontrolling the exhaust NOx emission has been recognized as one of the most challenging aspects for lean-burn engine technology as the conventional three-way catalyst is not effective in reducing NOx in a lean exhaust due to the high oxygen level (Sanger, 2001). A NOx storage/reduction (NSR) catalyst is among the most promising solutions to control NOx in lean exhaust. The NSR catalyst contains a storage component in order to store NOx under lean conditions. Catalyst regeneration is necessary as the storage capacity of the absorbing component gets saturated (Brunekreef, et al, 2010). Regeneration takes place by the introduction of a short period of rich driving, as injections of extra fuel cause decomposition of stored NOx and subsequent reduction into N2. A critical aspect of the NSR technology is the catalyst deactivation by sulfur. A detailed understanding about the NOx storage and reduction mechanism is important for improving catalyst regeneration times and preventing catalyst d eactivation. There has also been increased funding on research to ensure that commercialization of lean burn engine technology will not produce unintended human health effects. The already conducted research on this field has revealed that lean burn engines using low sulfur (less than 15-ppm sulfur) fuel and equipped with catalyzed particulate matters does not cause lung inflammation or pose other health hazards. This shows that the future prospects of lean burn engine technology is indeed bright just by looking at its environmental and financial factors and the increased funding from governments that want to develop an environmentally friendly ecosystem (Brunekreef, et al, 2010). Conclusion With the increased desire to gain more miles per gallon of fuel, car manufacturers are turning their attention to lean burn engine technologies. Over the last few years, the number of vehicles using engines made from lean burn technology has been on the rise. This has been enhanced by the effort s of various governments, which have been offering tax cuts to those purchasing cars fitted with this kind of engine technology. Although there are numerous challenges that have prevented this technology from being fully adopted, current trends in the automobile industry show that these challenges can be overcome in the course of time. With most governments and organizations keen on preserving the environment, there is no doubt that the use of lean burn engine technology will gain more popularity in the coming years. References Automotive News. (1992). Cleaner Civic OK in California. Automotive News 19 (2), 8. Brunekreef, B., et al. (2010). Air Pollution from Truck Traffic and Lung Function in Children Living Near Motorways. Epidemiology 8 (1), 298–303. Cutter Information Corp. (1992). Lean Burn Takes a Step Forward. Global Environmental Change Report, 7, (1), 7. EIA. (2008). The Transition to Ultralow-Sulfur Diesel Fuel: Effects on Prices and Supply. Washington: Energy Infor mation Administration. Greene, D. (2005). A Note on Implicit Consumer Discounting of Automobile Fuel Economy: Reviewing the Available Evidence. Transportation Research 17 (6), 491-500. Johnson, R. (1992). Next Accord May Offer New Engine. Automotive News, 17 (1), 231-240. MacKenzie, J., Roger, D. and Donald, C. (1992). The Going Rate: What it Really Costs to Drive. Washington: World Resources Institute. Pollack, A. (1992). Running Half-Engine to Save Fuel. NY Times, 18 November, p. 16. Sanger, D. (2001). Fuel Efficiency: New Japan Coup? New York Times, July 31, p. C1. Tobias, H., et al. (2006). Chemical Analysis of Diesel Engine Nanoparticles Using a Nano-DMA/Thermal Desorption Particle Beam Mass Spectrometer. Environmental Science Technology 35 (2), 2233–2243. This research paper on Lean Burn Engine Technology was written and submitted by user Arya D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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